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CPA104 Module 4 总结
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MODULE FOUR
这一个章节,就是运用各种的概念和工具,去预测某一个项目的可行性。材料一共介绍了11种工具,分别为:
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Activity based costing
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Time driven activity based
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Target costing
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Reassessing allocation of indirect costs
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Business process management (BPM)
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Value chain analysis
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Supplier related costs
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Life-cycle costs of redesigning product
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Total quality management (TQM)
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Outsourcing
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Customer profitability analysis
文章中用一个企业的新项目为索引,将以上的11种工具串了起来,所谓的一环扣一环吧!
Activity-basedcosting
在使用ABC的时候,管理层需要对企业的各项活动有名确的了解,知道间接成本是由哪些生产活动所产生的。ABCgives a meaningful analysis of indirect costs, provides a relatively accurateallocation of overhead costs for products and, ultimately, supportsdecision-making on prices and profitability。相比传统的成本分配方法,ABC可以得到更为准确的成本分配。
ABC成本分配法主要考虑两种成本,分别为:short-termvariable costs (volume of production) 和long-term variable costs (activity)。长期变动成本主要来自于企业生产活动的复杂性和多元化,而并非产量。Thegreater the variations in products that a company manufacturers, the morecomplex and diverse its support activities become and the greater the need foran ABC system。
ABC的运行步骤TABLE4.3主要包括:1) identify and costactivities; 2) determine and quantify cost drivers; 3) calculate the ABCtransaction cost rate or allocation rate; 4) allocate costs on the basis ofcost drivers; 5) calculate the unit cost。
Time-drivenactivity-based costing
TDABC的出现是为了克服ABC方法过于复杂、成本过高的问题。TDABC方法有两个步骤:
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Identify all relevant organizational resourcesand calculate the total cost and capacity (measured in minutes) of eachresource;
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For each unique type of activity carried out bythe organizational resource, the time taken to perform the activity isestimated.
这里需要注意的一点就是,idle time是要分配到productive time里面的。也就是在计算每一项活动的cost rate per minute的时候,分母里面的生产时间是包含有idle time的。
Target costing
企业要给一个新的产品定价,则需要考虑:specifiedmarket conditions, total costs of developing, manufacturing and supplying thatparticular product; and profit margin that will be obtained。Target costing主要关注市场可以接受的价格。它包括了产品生产周期过程中所产生的成本。
如果企业使用targetcosting,那么在上一个新产品项目的之前,需要完成以下5个步骤:
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Identify the target selling price for theproduct;
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Determine the profit margin;
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Determine the target cost;
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Determine if the product can be produced at orbelow the target cost;
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Compare the estimated cost determined in step 4with the target cost in step 3.
材料里面的例子,先用targetcosting对新产品的销售价格、毛利率、以及生产成本进行估算,结果是要想取得30%的毛利,企业的成本必须控制在$560以下,而预计的单位生产成本则达到了$ 750,差异为 $190。因此,之后的内容,就是用上面提到的各种方法,计算可能降低的成本或者可能提高的销售价格。
紧接着,材料里面用ABC成本分配方式代替了传统的成本分配方式,将单位生产成本降低了$25,达到了$725。
Strategic costmanagement
通常,如果想长久性的、有效的降低生产成本,企业需要对其生产价值链做一个仔细的分析,找到并减少甚至消除non-valueadding activities。SCM的基础是由两种不同类型的驱动因素(drivers)组成,分别为:structural cost drivers和executional cost drivers。Figure 4.2是一个判断减少生产成本的流程图,很重要!
Product life-cycle, target costing和kaizen costing是三种相互关联的SCM。
Product life-cycle
It is based on the idea that products or services passthrough a series of stages that comprise the ‘product’ life-cycle, with eachstage having major strategic and functional implications.
这里所指的’stage’包括:design, market entry,maturity, 和decline。需要注意的是,product life-cycle的理论并不适用于commodity products,例如牛奶和铁矿。Life-cycle management将新产品是为一项投资,即在这个产品的整个生命周期里所产生的现金收入多与其在筹备和生产周期里所耗费的现金支出。在Figure4.4里可以看出,总成本里的85%-90%发生在项目投入前期阶段,包括product design,prototype manufacture和constructionof production facilities。
Target costing主要关注与生产前期的产品生命周期,保证最大程度提高产品的销售能力。而Kaizencosting则着重于产品的生产和销售,provides a morerestricted opportunity for improving the cost performance of a product。
Kaizen costing
Kaizen costing is based on the concept of achievingincremental reductions in product costs through a program of small betterments.Kaizen costing想要取得的是不间断地降低成本。
Business processmanagement
BPM描述的是管理层对企业的运营过程进行重大的改变,用来降低价值链上的成本。BPMstarts from an organization’s strategic position and identifies how businessprocesses can be designed under ideal conditions using the most advancedtechnology。
材料中的例子,对生产过程中的几项活动进行了改进,结果,所降低的成本,加上因为运用BPM所增加的成本,新产品的总成本降低了$1.5m。因此,单位成本降低到了$675。
Value chainanalysis
减少,或者是消除不创造价值的生产活动,是ABM的第二个重点。These non-value addingactivities do no increase the attractiveness or saleability of the productsand, if eliminated, allow the organization to reduce its costs withoutaffecting its revenue.
这里需要注意的是,为了消除或者减少非价值增值的活动时,企业会采用更为先进的技术或者更有效率的方法来达成,而这些是要产生成本的。因此,在此之前,企业要进行cost-benefit的测试,判断究竟是fully eliminated还是partially eliminated。见P4.47的例子。
Supplier relatedcosts
跟供应商相关的成本,并不仅仅包括invoices上面的金额,我们还需要考虑其他隐性成本,包括:cost ofpurchasing, cost of delivery failure, cost of poor quality, and costs ofholding inventory。
The supplier-related expenses are usually hidden in inboundlogistics related overheads and, depending on the performance of a particularsupplier, can be significant.
Global suppliers: 企业在使用海外供应商的时候,不能仅仅考虑采购成本的减少,还需要考虑可能产生的其他成本,比如说国际贸易产生的额外成本,政治风险,文化差异等等。并且,供应商的低价成本可能是由于其低标准的生产环境或者对劳动者的剥削。供应商的不道德行为也会对企业产生负面的影响。
Supplier codes ofconduct: 企业可以制定一套针对供应商的道德准则,并且进行适当的监督。
Supply chain disruptions:不管是境内还是国际供应,企业都会面临着供应链断裂的问题。Thegreater the risk of supply chain disruption and the longer the lead timebetween order placement and fulfillment, the greater the level of safety stockthe organization will hold.
Minimizing inventorylevels: 能在多大程度上降低企业的存货量,主要取决于企业是否可以成功地运行JIT(just-in-time)管理理念。如果企业可以将其存货规模控制在一个最低的水平,那么企业将获得巨大的经济利益,比如说:manufacturingproductivity, customer response time, and product quality。在企业内部的价值链中,多余的存货可以通过以下的几种方式来消除:1) adopting acellular manufacturing layout; 2) better control over material flows from aninbound logistics perspective; and 3) better management of material flowsthroughout the manufacturing process。
Vendor selection: 在选择供应商的时候,企业不仅要考虑货物的价格,还需要参考供应商过去和将来的供应情况。Thesenon-financial measures relating to a supplier’s delivery performance areimportant.
材料的例子在这一部分比较了企业的三个供应商所产生的直接和间接成本。结果,直接成本(invoicecosts)最高的供应商Inne的supplier cost performance ratio反倒是最低的,为14.93%。公式为:
Supplier cost performance ration = supplier related cost /invoice costs
也就是说,企业向供应商Inne购买一刀的产品,所需要产生的间接费用为15分;而供应商Thyme则为23分。
Life-cycle costsof re-designing the product
这一部分说的是’valueengineering’ approach。企业通过研究产品的设计过程和生产过程,而对其进行提高和改进。这里需要知道的是,优化生产过程是会产生费用的,所谓的’spendingmoney to save money’,比如说企业提高产品成本来提高产品的质量,相对的客户的投诉成本和退货返修成本也就降低。并且,由于产品质量的提高,企业也可以在一定的范围内提高销售价格。
材料的例子在这里,对Solarheat1的某些设计和生产过程进行了改造,使得预计的单位成本降低至$603.11,并且将单位售价提高了$10,最后差异缩小到了$36.11。
Total qualitymanagement
TQM是指an organizationwill attempt to produce quality products in all its operations at a reasonablecost。’Doing it right the first time’和’zero defects’是企业质量控制的两个重要方面。成功运行质量控制系统可以帮助企业提高运行的有效性。
Juran 将控制质量的成本(prevention& appraisal)与因质量控制失败而产生的成本(internal& external)进行了区分。Shank &Govindarajan’s useful rule for assessing the interaction between the fourcategories of quality costs is that a $1 expenditurespent on prevention activities saves $10 in appraisal and internal and externalfailure costs. 管理层应当着重于控制质量成本,使得失败成本降低并且提高客户的满意度。
Outsourcing andoffshoring
Decisions about the source of goods or services will notonly be influenced by the relative costs of internal versus external supply,but also by differences in the level of quality, on-time delivery andafter-sales service provided. 同时,企业在考虑是否外包,还需要了解因为外包而产生的员工问题。一个部门的外包即意味该部门在企业内的解散,职员的辞退问题可能会使得社会对企业的道德问题产生质疑,并且对仍旧在任的员工产生不好的影响。如果企业不能够妥善的解决外包而产生的员工问题,其将来可能导致的成本将是巨大的。
另一方面,strategicimportance也是企业需要关心的,企业的核心部分是不可以外包的,请见Figure4.11的outsourcing decision pyramid。
Customer profitabilityanalysis
了解企业客户的属性,衡量各个客户给企业带来的利益,决定了企业是否保留该客户,如果处理客户关系。评价主要客户的标准,并不是仅仅停留在客户购买量和订单量,还应该考虑因为处理客户关系所产生的一系列间接成本。Whilecustomer service has become a key tool for enhancing an organization’scompetitive position as it battles for sales volume and profit margins, itcomes at a cost。
某一客户为企业带来的利润率不仅仅受grossmargin的影响,还涉及其他与customer service有关的成本。This is the net price(gross selling price less all sales discounts and other allowance) minus thecost of the goods supplied and all other customer related costs.
ABC成本分配方法是可以使用在这里,用来分配customer-relatedcosts。Figure 4.13将客户分成了四种类别,分别为:
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Passive: product crucial to customer and goodmatch to supplier
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Costly to service: pay top prices
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Inexpensive to service: price sensitive and fewspecial demand
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Aggressive: customer leverages buying power andlow price and highly customized specifications |
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